# Django 5.2 documentation

# Source code for django.db.models.base

    import copy
    import inspect
    import warnings
    from collections import defaultdict
    from functools import partialmethod
    from itertools import chain

    from asgiref.sync import sync_to_async

    import django
    from django.apps import apps
    from django.conf import settings
    from django.core import checks
    from django.core.exceptions import (
        NON_FIELD_ERRORS,
        FieldDoesNotExist,
        FieldError,
        MultipleObjectsReturned,
        ObjectDoesNotExist,
        ValidationError,
    )
    from django.db import (
        DJANGO_VERSION_PICKLE_KEY,
        DatabaseError,
        connection,
        connections,
        router,
        transaction,
    )
    from django.db.models import NOT_PROVIDED, ExpressionWrapper, IntegerField, Max, Value
    from django.db.models.constants import LOOKUP_SEP
    from django.db.models.deletion import CASCADE, Collector
    from django.db.models.expressions import DatabaseDefault
    from django.db.models.fields.composite import CompositePrimaryKey
    from django.db.models.fields.related import (
        ForeignObjectRel,
        OneToOneField,
        lazy_related_operation,
        resolve_relation,
    )
    from django.db.models.functions import Coalesce
    from django.db.models.manager import Manager
    from django.db.models.options import Options
    from django.db.models.query import F, Q
    from django.db.models.signals import (
        class_prepared,
        post_init,
        post_save,
        pre_init,
        pre_save,
    )
    from django.db.models.utils import AltersData, make_model_tuple
    from django.utils.deprecation import RemovedInDjango60Warning
    from django.utils.encoding import force_str
    from django.utils.hashable import make_hashable
    from django.utils.text import capfirst, get_text_list
    from django.utils.translation import gettext_lazy as _

    class Deferred:
        def __repr__(self):
            return "<Deferred field>"

        def __str__(self):
            return "<Deferred field>"

    DEFERRED = Deferred()

    def subclass_exception(name, bases, module, attached_to):
        """
        Create exception subclass. Used by ModelBase below.

        The exception is created in a way that allows it to be pickled, assuming
        that the returned exception class will be added as an attribute to the
        'attached_to' class.
        """
        return type(
            name,
            bases,
            {
                "__module__": module,
                "__qualname__": "%s.%s" % (attached_to.__qualname__, name),
            },
        )

    def _has_contribute_to_class(value):
        # Only call contribute_to_class() if it's bound.
        return not inspect.isclass(value) and hasattr(value, "contribute_to_class")

    class ModelBase(type):
        """Metaclass for all models."""

        def __new__(cls, name, bases, attrs, **kwargs):
            super_new = super().__new__

            # Also ensure initialization is only performed for subclasses of Model
            # (excluding Model class itself).
            parents = [b for b in bases if isinstance(b, ModelBase)]
            if not parents:
                return super_new(cls, name, bases, attrs)

            # Create the class.
            module = attrs.pop("__module__")
            new_attrs = {"__module__": module}
            classcell = attrs.pop("__classcell__", None)
            if classcell is not None:
                new_attrs["__classcell__"] = classcell
            attr_meta = attrs.pop("Meta", None)
            # Pass all attrs without a (Django-specific) contribute_to_class()
            # method to type.__new__() so that they're properly initialized
            # (i.e. __set_name__()).
            contributable_attrs = {}
            for obj_name, obj in attrs.items():
                if _has_contribute_to_class(obj):
                    contributable_attrs[obj_name] = obj
                else:
                    new_attrs[obj_name] = obj
            new_class = super_new(cls, name, bases, new_attrs, **kwargs)

            abstract = getattr(attr_meta, "abstract", False)
            meta = attr_meta or getattr(new_class, "Meta", None)
            base_meta = getattr(new_class, "_meta", None)

            app_label = None

            # Look for an application configuration to attach the model to.
            app_config = apps.get_containing_app_config(module)

            if getattr(meta, "app_label", None) is None:
                if app_config is None:
                    if not abstract:
                        raise RuntimeError(
                            "Model class %s.%s doesn't declare an explicit "
                            "app_label and isn't in an application in "
                            "INSTALLED_APPS." % (module, name)
                        )

                else:
                    app_label = app_config.label

            new_class.add_to_class("_meta", Options(meta, app_label))
            if not abstract:
                new_class.add_to_class(
                    "DoesNotExist",
                    subclass_exception(
                        "DoesNotExist",
                        tuple(
                            x.DoesNotExist
                            for x in parents
                            if hasattr(x, "_meta") and not x._meta.abstract
                        )
                        or (ObjectDoesNotExist,),
                        module,
                        attached_to=new_class,
                    ),
                )
                new_class.add_to_class(
                    "MultipleObjectsReturned",
                    subclass_exception(
                        "MultipleObjectsReturned",
                        tuple(
                            x.MultipleObjectsReturned
                            for x in parents
                            if hasattr(x, "_meta") and not x._meta.abstract
                        )
                        or (MultipleObjectsReturned,),
                        module,
                        attached_to=new_class,
                    ),
                )
                if base_meta and not base_meta.abstract:
                    # Non-abstract child classes inherit some attributes from their
                    # non-abstract parent (unless an ABC comes before it in the
                    # method resolution order).
                    if not hasattr(meta, "ordering"):
                        new_class._meta.ordering = base_meta.ordering
                    if not hasattr(meta, "get_latest_by"):
                        new_class._meta.get_latest_by = base_meta.get_latest_by

            is_proxy = new_class._meta.proxy

            # If the model is a proxy, ensure that the base class
            # hasn't been swapped out.
            if is_proxy and base_meta and base_meta.swapped:
                raise TypeError(
                    "%s cannot proxy the swapped model '%s'." % (name, base_meta.swapped)
                )

            # Add remaining attributes (those with a contribute_to_class() method)
            # to the class.
            for obj_name, obj in contributable_attrs.items():
                new_class.add_to_class(obj_name, obj)

            # All the fields of any type declared on this model
            new_fields = chain(
                new_class._meta.local_fields,
                new_class._meta.local_many_to_many,
                new_class._meta.private_fields,
            )
            field_names = {f.name for f in new_fields}

            # Basic setup for proxy models.
            if is_proxy:
                base = None
                for parent in [kls for kls in parents if hasattr(kls, "_meta")]:
                    if parent._meta.abstract:
                        if parent._meta.fields:
                            raise TypeError(
                                "Abstract base class containing model fields not "
                                "permitted for proxy model '%s'." % name
                            )
                        else:
                            continue
                    if base is None:
                        base = parent
                    elif parent._meta.concrete_model is not base._meta.concrete_model:
                        raise TypeError(
                            "Proxy model '%s' has more than one non-abstract model base "
                            "class." % name
                        )
                if base is None:
                    raise TypeError(
                        "Proxy model '%s' has no non-abstract model base class." % name
                    )
                new_class._meta.setup_proxy(base)
                new_class._meta.concrete_model = base._meta.concrete_model
            else:
                new_class._meta.concrete_model = new_class

            # Collect the parent links for multi-table inheritance.
            parent_links = {}
            for base in reversed([new_class] + parents):
                # Conceptually equivalent to `if base is Model`.
                if not hasattr(base, "_meta"):
                    continue
                # Skip concrete parent classes.
                if base != new_class and not base._meta.abstract:
                    continue
                # Locate OneToOneField instances.
                for field in base._meta.local_fields:
                    if isinstance(field, OneToOneField) and field.remote_field.parent_link:
                        related = resolve_relation(new_class, field.remote_field.model)
                        parent_links[make_model_tuple(related)] = field

            # Track fields inherited from base models.
            inherited_attributes = set()
            # Do the appropriate setup for any model parents.
            for base in new_class.mro():
                if base not in parents or not hasattr(base, "_meta"):
                    # Things without _meta aren't functional models, so they're
                    # uninteresting parents.
                    inherited_attributes.update(base.__dict__)
                    continue

                parent_fields = base._meta.local_fields + base._meta.local_many_to_many
                if not base._meta.abstract:
                    # Check for clashes between locally declared fields and those
                    # on the base classes.
                    for field in parent_fields:
                        if field.name in field_names:
                            raise FieldError(
                                "Local field %r in class %r clashes with field of "
                                "the same name from base class %r."
                                % (
                                    field.name,
                                    name,
                                    base.__name__,
                                )
                            )
                        else:
                            inherited_attributes.add(field.name)

                    # Concrete classes...
                    base = base._meta.concrete_model
                    base_key = make_model_tuple(base)
                    if base_key in parent_links:
                        field = parent_links[base_key]
                    elif not is_proxy:
                        attr_name = "%s_ptr" % base._meta.model_name
                        field = OneToOneField(
                            base,
                            on_delete=CASCADE,
                            name=attr_name,
                            auto_created=True,
                            parent_link=True,
                        )

                        if attr_name in field_names:
                            raise FieldError(
                                "Auto-generated field '%s' in class %r for "
                                "parent_link to base class %r clashes with "
                                "declared field of the same name."
                                % (
                                    attr_name,
                                    name,
                                    base.__name__,
                                )
                            )

                        # Only add the ptr field if it's not already present;
                        # e.g. migrations will already have it specified
                        if not hasattr(new_class, attr_name):
                            new_class.add_to_class(attr_name, field)
                    else:
                        field = None
                    new_class._meta.parents[base] = field
                else:
                    base_parents = base._meta.parents.copy()

                    # Add fields from abstract base class if it wasn't overridden.
                    for field in parent_fields:
                        if (
                            field.name not in field_names
                            and field.name not in new_class.__dict__
                            and field.name not in inherited_attributes
                        ):
                            new_field = copy.deepcopy(field)
                            new_class.add_to_class(field.name, new_field)
                            # Replace parent links defined on this base by the new
                            # field. It will be appropriately resolved if required.
                            if field.one_to_one:
                                for parent, parent_link in base_parents.items():
                                    if field == parent_link:
                                        base_parents[parent] = new_field

                    # Pass any non-abstract parent classes onto child.
                    new_class._meta.parents.update(base_parents)

                # Inherit private fields (like GenericForeignKey) from the parent
                # class
                for field in base._meta.private_fields:
                    if field.name in field_names:
                        if not base._meta.abstract:
                            raise FieldError(
                                "Local field %r in class %r clashes with field of "
                                "the same name from base class %r."
                                % (
                                    field.name,
                                    name,
                                    base.__name__,
                                )
                            )
                    else:
                        field = copy.deepcopy(field)
                        if not base._meta.abstract:
                            field.mti_inherited = True
                        new_class.add_to_class(field.name, field)

            # Copy indexes so that index names are unique when models extend an
            # abstract model.
            new_class._meta.indexes = [
                copy.deepcopy(idx) for idx in new_class._meta.indexes
            ]

            if abstract:
                # Abstract base models can't be instantiated and don't appear in
                # the list of models for an app. We do the final setup for them a
                # little differently from normal models.
                attr_meta.abstract = False
                new_class.Meta = attr_meta
                return new_class

            new_class._prepare()
            new_class._meta.apps.register_model(new_class._meta.app_label, new_class)
            return new_class

        def add_to_class(cls, name, value):
            if _has_contribute_to_class(value):
                value.contribute_to_class(cls, name)
            else:
                setattr(cls, name, value)

        def _prepare(cls):
            """Create some methods once self._meta has been populated."""
            opts = cls._meta
            opts._prepare(cls)

            if opts.order_with_respect_to:
                cls.get_next_in_order = partialmethod(
                    cls._get_next_or_previous_in_order, is_next=True
                )
                cls.get_previous_in_order = partialmethod(
                    cls._get_next_or_previous_in_order, is_next=False
                )

                # Defer creating accessors on the foreign class until it has been
                # created and registered. If remote_field is None, we're ordering
                # with respect to a GenericForeignKey and don't know what the
                # foreign class is - we'll add those accessors later in
                # contribute_to_class().
                if opts.order_with_respect_to.remote_field:
                    wrt = opts.order_with_respect_to
                    remote = wrt.remote_field.model
                    lazy_related_operation(make_foreign_order_accessors, cls, remote)

            # Give the class a docstring -- its definition.
            if cls.__doc__ is None:
                cls.__doc__ = "%s(%s)" % (
                    cls.__name__,
                    ", ".join(f.name for f in opts.fields),
                )

            get_absolute_url_override = settings.ABSOLUTE_URL_OVERRIDES.get(
                opts.label_lower
            )
            if get_absolute_url_override:
                setattr(cls, "get_absolute_url", get_absolute_url_override)

            if not opts.managers:
                if any(f.name == "objects" for f in opts.fields):
                    raise ValueError(
                        "Model %s must specify a custom Manager, because it has a "
                        "field named 'objects'." % cls.__name__
                    )
                manager = Manager()
                manager.auto_created = True
                cls.add_to_class("objects", manager)

            # Set the name of _meta.indexes. This can't be done in
            # Options.contribute_to_class() because fields haven't been added to
            # the model at that point.
            for index in cls._meta.indexes:
                if not index.name:
                    index.set_name_with_model(cls)

            class_prepared.send(sender=cls)

        @property
        def _base_manager(cls):
            return cls._meta.base_manager

        @property
        def _default_manager(cls):
            return cls._meta.default_manager

    class ModelStateFieldsCacheDescriptor:
        def __get__(self, instance, cls=None):
            if instance is None:
                return self
            res = instance.fields_cache = {}
            return res

    class ModelState:
        """Store model instance state."""

        db = None
        # If true, uniqueness validation checks will consider this a new, unsaved
        # object. Necessary for correct validation of new instances of objects with
        # explicit (non-auto) PKs. This impacts validation only; it has no effect
        # on the actual save.
        adding = True
        fields_cache = ModelStateFieldsCacheDescriptor()

    class Model(AltersData, metaclass=ModelBase):
        def __init__(self, *args, **kwargs):
            # Alias some things as locals to avoid repeat global lookups
            cls = self.__class__
            opts = self._meta
            _setattr = setattr
            _DEFERRED = DEFERRED
            if opts.abstract:
                raise TypeError("Abstract models cannot be instantiated.")

            pre_init.send(sender=cls, args=args, kwargs=kwargs)

            # Set up the storage for instance state
            self._state = ModelState()

            # There is a rather weird disparity here; if kwargs, it's set, then args
            # overrides it. It should be one or the other; don't duplicate the work
            # The reason for the kwargs check is that standard iterator passes in by
            # args, and instantiation for iteration is 33% faster.
            if len(args) > len(opts.concrete_fields):
                # Daft, but matches old exception sans the err msg.
                raise IndexError("Number of args exceeds number of fields")

            if not kwargs:
                fields_iter = iter(opts.concrete_fields)
                # The ordering of the zip calls matter - zip throws StopIteration
                # when an iter throws it. So if the first iter throws it, the second
                # is *not* consumed. We rely on this, so don't change the order
                # without changing the logic.
                for val, field in zip(args, fields_iter):
                    if val is _DEFERRED:
                        continue
                    _setattr(self, field.attname, val)
            else:
                # Slower, kwargs-ready version.
                fields_iter = iter(opts.fields)
                for val, field in zip(args, fields_iter):
                    if val is _DEFERRED:
                        continue
                    _setattr(self, field.attname, val)
                    if kwargs.pop(field.name, NOT_PROVIDED) is not NOT_PROVIDED:
                        raise TypeError(
                            f"{cls.__qualname__}() got both positional and "
                            f"keyword arguments for field '{field.name}'."
                        )

            # Now we're left with the unprocessed fields that *must* come from
            # keywords, or default.

            for field in fields_iter:
                is_related_object = False
                # Virtual field
                if field.column is None or field.generated:
                    continue
                if kwargs:
                    if isinstance(field.remote_field, ForeignObjectRel):
                        try:
                            # Assume object instance was passed in.
                            rel_obj = kwargs.pop(field.name)
                            is_related_object = True
                        except KeyError:
                            try:
                                # Object instance wasn't passed in -- must be an ID.
                                val = kwargs.pop(field.attname)
                            except KeyError:
                                val = field.get_default()
                    else:
                        try:
                            val = kwargs.pop(field.attname)
                        except KeyError:
                            # This is done with an exception rather than the
                            # default argument on pop because we don't want
                            # get_default() to be evaluated, and then not used.
                            # Refs #12057.
                            val = field.get_default()
                else:
                    val = field.get_default()

                if is_related_object:
                    # If we are passed a related instance, set it using the
                    # field.name instead of field.attname (e.g. "user" instead of
                    # "user_id") so that the object gets properly cached (and type
                    # checked) by the RelatedObjectDescriptor.
                    if rel_obj is not _DEFERRED:
                        _setattr(self, field.name, rel_obj)
                else:
                    if val is not _DEFERRED:
                        _setattr(self, field.attname, val)

            if kwargs:
                property_names = opts._property_names
                unexpected = ()
                for prop, value in kwargs.items():
                    # Any remaining kwargs must correspond to properties or virtual
                    # fields.
                    if prop in property_names:
                        if value is not _DEFERRED:
                            _setattr(self, prop, value)
                    else:
                        try:
                            opts.get_field(prop)
                        except FieldDoesNotExist:
                            unexpected += (prop,)
                        else:
                            if value is not _DEFERRED:
                                _setattr(self, prop, value)
                if unexpected:
                    unexpected_names = ", ".join(repr(n) for n in unexpected)
                    raise TypeError(
                        f"{cls.__name__}() got unexpected keyword arguments: "
                        f"{unexpected_names}"
                    )
            super().__init__()
            post_init.send(sender=cls, instance=self)

        @classmethod
        def from_db(cls, db, field_names, values):
            if len(values) != len(cls._meta.concrete_fields):
                values_iter = iter(values)
                values = [
                    next(values_iter) if f.attname in field_names else DEFERRED
                    for f in cls._meta.concrete_fields
                ]
            new = cls(*values)
            new._state.adding = False
            new._state.db = db
            return new

        def __repr__(self):
            return "<%s: %s>" % (self.__class__.__name__, self)

        def __str__(self):
            return "%s object (%s)" % (self.__class__.__name__, self.pk)

        def __eq__(self, other):
            if not isinstance(other, Model):
                return NotImplemented
            if self._meta.concrete_model != other._meta.concrete_model:
                return False
            my_pk = self.pk
            if my_pk is None:
                return self is other
            return my_pk == other.pk

        def __hash__(self):
            if not self._is_pk_set():
                raise TypeError("Model instances without primary key value are unhashable")
            return hash(self.pk)

        def __reduce__(self):
            data = self.__getstate__()
            data[DJANGO_VERSION_PICKLE_KEY] = django.__version__
            class_id = self._meta.app_label, self._meta.object_name
            return model_unpickle, (class_id,), data

        def __getstate__(self):
            """Hook to allow choosing the attributes to pickle."""
            state = self.__dict__.copy()
            state["_state"] = copy.copy(state["_state"])
            state["_state"].fields_cache = state["_state"].fields_cache.copy()
            # memoryview cannot be pickled, so cast it to bytes and store
            # separately.
            _memoryview_attrs = []
            for attr, value in state.items():
                if isinstance(value, memoryview):
                    _memoryview_attrs.append((attr, bytes(value)))
            if _memoryview_attrs:
                state["_memoryview_attrs"] = _memoryview_attrs
                for attr, value in _memoryview_attrs:
                    state.pop(attr)
            return state

        def __setstate__(self, state):
            pickled_version = state.get(DJANGO_VERSION_PICKLE_KEY)
            if pickled_version:
                if pickled_version != django.__version__:
                    warnings.warn(
                        "Pickled model instance's Django version %s does not "
                        "match the current version %s."
                        % (pickled_version, django.__version__),
                        RuntimeWarning,
                        stacklevel=2,
                    )
            else:
                warnings.warn(
                    "Pickled model instance's Django version is not specified.",
                    RuntimeWarning,
                    stacklevel=2,
                )
            if "_memoryview_attrs" in state:
                for attr, value in state.pop("_memoryview_attrs"):
                    state[attr] = memoryview(value)
            self.__dict__.update(state)

        def _get_pk_val(self, meta=None):
            meta = meta or self._meta
            return getattr(self, meta.pk.attname)

        def _set_pk_val(self, value):
            for parent_link in self._meta.parents.values():
                if parent_link and parent_link != self._meta.pk:
                    setattr(self, parent_link.target_field.attname, value)
            return setattr(self, self._meta.pk.attname, value)

        pk = property(_get_pk_val, _set_pk_val)

        def _is_pk_set(self, meta=None):
            pk_val = self._get_pk_val(meta)
            return not (
                pk_val is None
                or (isinstance(pk_val, tuple) and any(f is None for f in pk_val))
            )

        def get_deferred_fields(self):
            """
            Return a set containing names of deferred fields for this instance.
            """
            return {
                f.attname
                for f in self._meta.concrete_fields
                if f.attname not in self.__dict__
            }

        def refresh_from_db(self, using=None, fields=None, from_queryset=None):
            """
            Reload field values from the database.

            By default, the reloading happens from the database this instance was
            loaded from, or by the read router if this instance wasn't loaded from
            any database. The using parameter will override the default.

            Fields can be used to specify which fields to reload. The fields
            should be an iterable of field attnames. If fields is None, then
            all non-deferred fields are reloaded.

            When accessing deferred fields of an instance, the deferred loading
            of the field will call this method.
            """
            if fields is None:
                self._prefetched_objects_cache = {}
            else:
                prefetched_objects_cache = getattr(self, "_prefetched_objects_cache", ())
                fields = set(fields)
                for field in fields.copy():
                    if field in prefetched_objects_cache:
                        del prefetched_objects_cache[field]
                        fields.remove(field)
                if not fields:
                    return
                if any(LOOKUP_SEP in f for f in fields):
                    raise ValueError(
                        'Found "%s" in fields argument. Relations and transforms '
                        "are not allowed in fields." % LOOKUP_SEP
                    )

            if from_queryset is None:
                hints = {"instance": self}
                from_queryset = self.__class__._base_manager.db_manager(using, hints=hints)
            elif using is not None:
                from_queryset = from_queryset.using(using)

            db_instance_qs = from_queryset.filter(pk=self.pk)

            # Use provided fields, if not set then reload all non-deferred fields.
            deferred_fields = self.get_deferred_fields()
            if fields is not None:
                db_instance_qs = db_instance_qs.only(*fields)
            elif deferred_fields:
                db_instance_qs = db_instance_qs.only(
                    *{
                        f.attname
                        for f in self._meta.concrete_fields
                        if f.attname not in deferred_fields
                    }
                )

            db_instance = db_instance_qs.get()
            non_loaded_fields = db_instance.get_deferred_fields()
            for field in self._meta.concrete_fields:
                if field.attname in non_loaded_fields:
                    # This field wasn't refreshed - skip ahead.
                    continue
                setattr(self, field.attname, getattr(db_instance, field.attname))
                # Clear or copy cached foreign keys.
                if field.is_relation:
                    if field.is_cached(db_instance):
                        field.set_cached_value(self, field.get_cached_value(db_instance))
                    elif field.is_cached(self):
                        field.delete_cached_value(self)

            # Clear cached relations.
            for rel in self._meta.related_objects:
                if (fields is None or rel.name in fields) and rel.is_cached(self):
                    rel.delete_cached_value(self)

            # Clear cached private relations.
            for field in self._meta.private_fields:
                if (
                    (fields is None or field.name in fields)
                    and field.is_relation
                    and field.is_cached(self)
                ):
                    field.delete_cached_value(self)

            self._state.db = db_instance._state.db

        async def arefresh_from_db(self, using=None, fields=None, from_queryset=None):
            return await sync_to_async(self.refresh_from_db)(
                using=using, fields=fields, from_queryset=from_queryset
            )

        def serializable_value(self, field_name):
            """
            Return the value of the field name for this instance. If the field is
            a foreign key, return the id value instead of the object. If there's
            no Field object with this name on the model, return the model
            attribute's value.

            Used to serialize a field's value (in the serializer, or form output,
            for example). Normally, you would just access the attribute directly
            and not use this method.
            """
            try:
                field = self._meta.get_field(field_name)
            except FieldDoesNotExist:
                return getattr(self, field_name)
            return getattr(self, field.attname)

        # RemovedInDjango60Warning: When the deprecation ends, remove completely.
        def _parse_save_params(self, *args, method_name, **kwargs):
            defaults = {
                "force_insert": False,
                "force_update": False,
                "using": None,
                "update_fields": None,
            }

            warnings.warn(
                f"Passing positional arguments to {method_name}() is deprecated",
                RemovedInDjango60Warning,
                stacklevel=3,
            )
            total_len_args = len(args) + 1  # include self
            max_len_args = len(defaults) + 1
            if total_len_args > max_len_args:
                # Recreate the proper TypeError message from Python.
                raise TypeError(
                    f"Model.{method_name}() takes from 1 to {max_len_args} positional "
                    f"arguments but {total_len_args} were given"
                )

            def get_param(param_name, param_value, arg_index):
                if arg_index < len(args):
                    if param_value is not defaults[param_name]:
                        # Recreate the proper TypeError message from Python.
                        raise TypeError(
                            f"Model.{method_name}() got multiple values for argument "
                            f"'{param_name}'"
                        )
                    return args[arg_index]

                return param_value

            return [get_param(k, v, i) for i, (k, v) in enumerate(kwargs.items())]

        # RemovedInDjango60Warning: When the deprecation ends, replace with:
        # def save(
        #   self, *, force_insert=False, force_update=False, using=None, update_fields=None,
        # ):

        def save(
            self,
            *args,
            force_insert=False,
            force_update=False,
            using=None,
            update_fields=None,
        ):
            """
            Save the current instance. Override this in a subclass if you want to
            control the saving process.

            The 'force_insert' and 'force_update' parameters can be used to insist
            that the "save" must be an SQL insert or update (or equivalent for
            non-SQL backends), respectively. Normally, they should not be set.
            """
            # RemovedInDjango60Warning.
            if args:
                force_insert, force_update, using, update_fields = self._parse_save_params(
                    *args,
                    method_name="save",
                    force_insert=force_insert,
                    force_update=force_update,
                    using=using,
                    update_fields=update_fields,
                )

            self._prepare_related_fields_for_save(operation_name="save")

            using = using or router.db_for_write(self.__class__, instance=self)
            if force_insert and (force_update or update_fields):
                raise ValueError("Cannot force both insert and updating in model saving.")

            deferred_non_generated_fields = {
                f.attname
                for f in self._meta.concrete_fields
                if f.attname not in self.__dict__ and f.generated is False
            }
            if update_fields is not None:
                # If update_fields is empty, skip the save. We do also check for
                # no-op saves later on for inheritance cases. This bailout is
                # still needed for skipping signal sending.
                if not update_fields:
                    return

                update_fields = frozenset(update_fields)
                field_names = self._meta._non_pk_concrete_field_names
                not_updatable_fields = update_fields.difference(field_names)

                if not_updatable_fields:
                    raise ValueError(
                        "The following fields do not exist in this model, are m2m "
                        "fields, primary keys, or are non-concrete fields: %s"
                        % ", ".join(not_updatable_fields)
                    )

            # If saving to the same database, and this model is deferred, then
            # automatically do an "update_fields" save on the loaded fields.
            elif (
                not force_insert
                and deferred_non_generated_fields
                and using == self._state.db
            ):
                field_names = set()
                pk_fields = self._meta.pk_fields
                for field in self._meta.concrete_fields:
                    if field not in pk_fields and not hasattr(field, "through"):
                        field_names.add(field.attname)
                loaded_fields = field_names.difference(deferred_non_generated_fields)
                if loaded_fields:
                    update_fields = frozenset(loaded_fields)

            self.save_base(
                using=using,
                force_insert=force_insert,
                force_update=force_update,
                update_fields=update_fields,
            )

        save.alters_data = True

        # RemovedInDjango60Warning: When the deprecation ends, replace with:
        # async def asave(
        #   self, *, force_insert=False, force_update=False, using=None, update_fields=None,
        # ):

        async def asave(
            self,
            *args,
            force_insert=False,
            force_update=False,
            using=None,
            update_fields=None,
        ):
            # RemovedInDjango60Warning.
            if args:
                force_insert, force_update, using, update_fields = self._parse_save_params(
                    *args,
                    method_name="asave",
                    force_insert=force_insert,
                    force_update=force_update,
                    using=using,
                    update_fields=update_fields,
                )
            return await sync_to_async(self.save)(
                force_insert=force_insert,
                force_update=force_update,
                using=using,
                update_fields=update_fields,
            )

        asave.alters_data = True

        @classmethod
        def _validate_force_insert(cls, force_insert):
            if force_insert is False:
                return ()
            if force_insert is True:
                return (cls,)
            if not isinstance(force_insert, tuple):
                raise TypeError("force_insert must be a bool or tuple.")
            for member in force_insert:
                if not isinstance(member, ModelBase):
                    raise TypeError(
                        f"Invalid force_insert member. {member!r} must be a model subclass."
                    )
                if not issubclass(cls, member):
                    raise TypeError(
                        f"Invalid force_insert member. {member.__qualname__} must be a "
                        f"base of {cls.__qualname__}."
                    )
            return force_insert

        def save_base(
            self,
            raw=False,
            force_insert=False,
            force_update=False,
            using=None,
            update_fields=None,
        ):
            """
            Handle the parts of saving which should be done only once per save,
            yet need to be done in raw saves, too. This includes some sanity
            checks and signal sending.

            The 'raw' argument is telling save_base not to save any parent
            models and not to do any changes to the values before save. This
            is used by fixture loading.
            """
            using = using or router.db_for_write(self.__class__, instance=self)
            assert not (force_insert and (force_update or update_fields))
            assert update_fields is None or update_fields
            cls = origin = self.__class__
            # Skip proxies, but keep the origin as the proxy model.
            if cls._meta.proxy:
                cls = cls._meta.concrete_model
            meta = cls._meta
            if not meta.auto_created:
                pre_save.send(
                    sender=origin,
                    instance=self,
                    raw=raw,
                    using=using,
                    update_fields=update_fields,
                )
            # A transaction isn't needed if one query is issued.
            if meta.parents:
                context_manager = transaction.atomic(using=using, savepoint=False)
            else:
                context_manager = transaction.mark_for_rollback_on_error(using=using)
            with context_manager:
                parent_inserted = False
                if not raw:
                    # Validate force insert only when parents are inserted.
                    force_insert = self._validate_force_insert(force_insert)
                    parent_inserted = self._save_parents(
                        cls, using, update_fields, force_insert
                    )
                updated = self._save_table(
                    raw,
                    cls,
                    force_insert or parent_inserted,
                    force_update,
                    using,
                    update_fields,
                )
            # Store the database on which the object was saved
            self._state.db = using
            # Once saved, this is no longer a to-be-added instance.
            self._state.adding = False

            # Signal that the save is complete
            if not meta.auto_created:
                post_save.send(
                    sender=origin,
                    instance=self,
                    created=(not updated),
                    update_fields=update_fields,
                    raw=raw,
                    using=using,
                )

        save_base.alters_data = True

        def _save_parents(
            self, cls, using, update_fields, force_insert, updated_parents=None
        ):
            """Save all the parents of cls using values from self."""
            meta = cls._meta
            inserted = False
            if updated_parents is None:
                updated_parents = {}
            for parent, field in meta.parents.items():
                # Make sure the link fields are synced between parent and self.
                if (
                    field
                    and getattr(self, parent._meta.pk.attname) is None
                    and getattr(self, field.attname) is not None
                ):
                    setattr(self, parent._meta.pk.attname, getattr(self, field.attname))
                if (parent_updated := updated_parents.get(parent)) is None:
                    parent_inserted = self._save_parents(
                        cls=parent,
                        using=using,
                        update_fields=update_fields,
                        force_insert=force_insert,
                        updated_parents=updated_parents,
                    )
                    updated = self._save_table(
                        cls=parent,
                        using=using,
                        update_fields=update_fields,
                        force_insert=parent_inserted or issubclass(parent, force_insert),
                    )
                    if not updated:
                        inserted = True
                    updated_parents[parent] = updated
                elif not parent_updated:
                    inserted = True
                # Set the parent's PK value to self.
                if field:
                    setattr(self, field.attname, self._get_pk_val(parent._meta))
                    # Since we didn't have an instance of the parent handy set
                    # attname directly, bypassing the descriptor. Invalidate
                    # the related object cache, in case it's been accidentally
                    # populated. A fresh instance will be re-built from the
                    # database if necessary.
                    if field.is_cached(self):
                        field.delete_cached_value(self)
            return inserted

        def _save_table(
            self,
            raw=False,
            cls=None,
            force_insert=False,
            force_update=False,
            using=None,
            update_fields=None,
        ):
            """
            Do the heavy-lifting involved in saving. Update or insert the data
            for a single table.
            """
            meta = cls._meta
            pk_fields = meta.pk_fields
            non_pks_non_generated = [
                f
                for f in meta.local_concrete_fields
                if f not in pk_fields and not f.generated
            ]

            if update_fields:
                non_pks_non_generated = [
                    f
                    for f in non_pks_non_generated
                    if f.name in update_fields or f.attname in update_fields
                ]

            if not self._is_pk_set(meta):
                pk_val = meta.pk.get_pk_value_on_save(self)
                setattr(self, meta.pk.attname, pk_val)
            pk_set = self._is_pk_set(meta)
            if not pk_set and (force_update or update_fields):
                raise ValueError("Cannot force an update in save() with no primary key.")
            updated = False
            # Skip an UPDATE when adding an instance and primary key has a default.
            if (
                not raw
                and not force_insert
                and not force_update
                and self._state.adding
                and all(f.has_default() or f.has_db_default() for f in meta.pk_fields)
            ):
                force_insert = True
            # If possible, try an UPDATE. If that doesn't update anything, do an INSERT.
            if pk_set and not force_insert:
                base_qs = cls._base_manager.using(using)
                values = [
                    (
                        f,
                        None,
                        (getattr(self, f.attname) if raw else f.pre_save(self, False)),
                    )
                    for f in non_pks_non_generated
                ]
                forced_update = update_fields or force_update
                pk_val = self._get_pk_val(meta)
                updated = self._do_update(
                    base_qs, using, pk_val, values, update_fields, forced_update
                )
                if force_update and not updated:
                    raise DatabaseError("Forced update did not affect any rows.")
                if update_fields and not updated:
                    raise DatabaseError("Save with update_fields did not affect any rows.")
            if not updated:
                if meta.order_with_respect_to:
                    # If this is a model with an order_with_respect_to
                    # autopopulate the _order field
                    field = meta.order_with_respect_to
                    filter_args = field.get_filter_kwargs_for_object(self)
                    self._order = (
                        cls._base_manager.using(using)
                        .filter(**filter_args)
                        .aggregate(
                            _order__max=Coalesce(
                                ExpressionWrapper(
                                    Max("_order") + Value(1), output_field=IntegerField()
                                ),
                                Value(0),
                            ),
                        )["_order__max"]
                    )
                fields = [
                    f
                    for f in meta.local_concrete_fields
                    if not f.generated and (pk_set or f is not meta.auto_field)
                ]
                returning_fields = meta.db_returning_fields
                results = self._do_insert(
                    cls._base_manager, using, fields, returning_fields, raw
                )
                if results:
                    for value, field in zip(results[0], returning_fields):
                        setattr(self, field.attname, value)
            return updated

        def _do_update(self, base_qs, using, pk_val, values, update_fields, forced_update):
            """
            Try to update the model. Return True if the model was updated (if an
            update query was done and a matching row was found in the DB).
            """
            filtered = base_qs.filter(pk=pk_val)
            if not values:
                # We can end up here when saving a model in inheritance chain where
                # update_fields doesn't target any field in current model. In that
                # case we just say the update succeeded. Another case ending up here
                # is a model with just PK - in that case check that the PK still
                # exists.
                return update_fields is not None or filtered.exists()
            if self._meta.select_on_save and not forced_update:
                return (
                    filtered.exists()
                    and
                    # It may happen that the object is deleted from the DB right after
                    # this check, causing the subsequent UPDATE to return zero matching
                    # rows. The same result can occur in some rare cases when the
                    # database returns zero despite the UPDATE being executed
                    # successfully (a row is matched and updated). In order to
                    # distinguish these two cases, the object's existence in the
                    # database is again checked for if the UPDATE query returns 0.
                    (filtered._update(values) > 0 or filtered.exists())
                )
            return filtered._update(values) > 0

        def _do_insert(self, manager, using, fields, returning_fields, raw):
            """
            Do an INSERT. If returning_fields is defined then this method should
            return the newly created data for the model.
            """
            return manager._insert(
                [self],
                fields=fields,
                returning_fields=returning_fields,
                using=using,
                raw=raw,
            )

        def _prepare_related_fields_for_save(self, operation_name, fields=None):
            # Ensure that a model instance without a PK hasn't been assigned to
            # a ForeignKey, GenericForeignKey or OneToOneField on this model. If
            # the field is nullable, allowing the save would result in silent data
            # loss.
            for field in self._meta.concrete_fields:
                if fields and field not in fields:
                    continue
                # If the related field isn't cached, then an instance hasn't been
                # assigned and there's no need to worry about this check.
                if field.is_relation and field.is_cached(self):
                    obj = getattr(self, field.name, None)
                    if not obj:
                        continue
                    # A pk may have been assigned manually to a model instance not
                    # saved to the database (or auto-generated in a case like
                    # UUIDField), but we allow the save to proceed and rely on the
                    # database to raise an IntegrityError if applicable. If
                    # constraints aren't supported by the database, there's the
                    # unavoidable risk of data corruption.
                    if not obj._is_pk_set():
                        # Remove the object from a related instance cache.
                        if not field.remote_field.multiple:
                            field.remote_field.delete_cached_value(obj)
                        raise ValueError(
                            "%s() prohibited to prevent data loss due to unsaved "
                            "related object '%s'." % (operation_name, field.name)
                        )
                    elif getattr(self, field.attname) in field.empty_values:
                        # Set related object if it has been saved after an
                        # assignment.
                        setattr(self, field.name, obj)
                    # If the relationship's pk/to_field was changed, clear the
                    # cached relationship.
                    if getattr(obj, field.target_field.attname) != getattr(
                        self, field.attname
                    ):
                        field.delete_cached_value(self)
            # GenericForeignKeys are private.
            for field in self._meta.private_fields:
                if fields and field not in fields:
                    continue
                if (
                    field.is_relation
                    and field.is_cached(self)
                    and hasattr(field, "fk_field")
                ):
                    obj = field.get_cached_value(self, default=None)
                    if obj and not obj._is_pk_set():
                        raise ValueError(
                            f"{operation_name}() prohibited to prevent data loss due to "
                            f"unsaved related object '{field.name}'."
                        )

        def delete(self, using=None, keep_parents=False):
            if not self._is_pk_set():
                raise ValueError(
                    "%s object can't be deleted because its %s attribute is set "
                    "to None." % (self._meta.object_name, self._meta.pk.attname)
                )
            using = using or router.db_for_write(self.__class__, instance=self)
            collector = Collector(using=using, origin=self)
            collector.collect([self], keep_parents=keep_parents)
            return collector.delete()

        delete.alters_data = True

        async def adelete(self, using=None, keep_parents=False):
            return await sync_to_async(self.delete)(
                using=using,
                keep_parents=keep_parents,
            )

        adelete.alters_data = True

        def _get_FIELD_display(self, field):
            value = getattr(self, field.attname)
            choices_dict = dict(make_hashable(field.flatchoices))
            # force_str() to coerce lazy strings.
            return force_str(
                choices_dict.get(make_hashable(value), value), strings_only=True
            )

        def _get_next_or_previous_by_FIELD(self, field, is_next, **kwargs):
            if not self._is_pk_set():
                raise ValueError("get_next/get_previous cannot be used on unsaved objects.")
            op = "gt" if is_next else "lt"
            order = "" if is_next else "-"
            param = getattr(self, field.attname)
            q = Q.create([(field.name, param), (f"pk__{op}", self.pk)], connector=Q.AND)
            q = Q.create([q, (f"{field.name}__{op}", param)], connector=Q.OR)
            qs = (
                self.__class__._default_manager.using(self._state.db)
                .filter(**kwargs)
                .filter(q)
                .order_by("%s%s" % (order, field.name), "%spk" % order)
            )
            try:
                return qs[0]
            except IndexError:
                raise self.DoesNotExist(
                    "%s matching query does not exist." % self.__class__._meta.object_name
                )

        def _get_next_or_previous_in_order(self, is_next):
            cachename = "__%s_order_cache" % is_next
            if not hasattr(self, cachename):
                op = "gt" if is_next else "lt"
                order = "_order" if is_next else "-_order"
                order_field = self._meta.order_with_respect_to
                filter_args = order_field.get_filter_kwargs_for_object(self)
                obj = (
                    self.__class__._default_manager.filter(**filter_args)
                    .filter(
                        **{
                            "_order__%s"
                            % op: self.__class__._default_manager.values("_order").filter(
                                **{self._meta.pk.name: self.pk}
                            )
                        }
                    )
                    .order_by(order)[:1]
                    .get()
                )
                setattr(self, cachename, obj)
            return getattr(self, cachename)

        def _get_field_expression_map(self, meta, exclude=None):
            if exclude is None:
                exclude = set()
            meta = meta or self._meta
            field_map = {}
            generated_fields = []
            for field in meta.local_concrete_fields:
                if field.name in exclude:
                    continue
                if field.generated:
                    if any(
                        ref[0] in exclude
                        for ref in self._get_expr_references(field.expression)
                    ):
                        continue
                    generated_fields.append(field)
                    continue
                value = getattr(self, field.attname)
                if not value or not hasattr(value, "resolve_expression"):
                    value = Value(value, field)
                field_map[field.name] = value
            if "pk" not in exclude:
                field_map["pk"] = Value(self.pk, meta.pk)
            if generated_fields:
                replacements = {F(name): value for name, value in field_map.items()}
                for generated_field in generated_fields:
                    field_map[generated_field.name] = ExpressionWrapper(
                        generated_field.expression.replace_expressions(replacements),
                        generated_field.output_field,
                    )

            return field_map

        def prepare_database_save(self, field):
            if not self._is_pk_set():
                raise ValueError(
                    "Unsaved model instance %r cannot be used in an ORM query." % self
                )
            return getattr(self, field.remote_field.get_related_field().attname)

        def clean(self):
            """
            Hook for doing any extra model-wide validation after clean() has been
            called on every field by self.clean_fields. Any ValidationError raised
            by this method will not be associated with a particular field; it will
            have a special-case association with the field defined by NON_FIELD_ERRORS.
            """
            pass

        def validate_unique(self, exclude=None):
            """
            Check unique constraints on the model and raise ValidationError if any
            failed.
            """
            unique_checks, date_checks = self._get_unique_checks(exclude=exclude)

            errors = self._perform_unique_checks(unique_checks)
            date_errors = self._perform_date_checks(date_checks)

            for k, v in date_errors.items():
                errors.setdefault(k, []).extend(v)

            if errors:
                raise ValidationError(errors)

        def _get_unique_checks(self, exclude=None, include_meta_constraints=False):
            """
            Return a list of checks to perform. Since validate_unique() could be
            called from a ModelForm, some fields may have been excluded; we can't
            perform a unique check on a model that is missing fields involved
            in that check. Fields that did not validate should also be excluded,
            but they need to be passed in via the exclude argument.
            """
            if exclude is None:
                exclude = set()
            unique_checks = []

            unique_togethers = [(self.__class__, self._meta.unique_together)]
            constraints = []
            if include_meta_constraints:
                constraints = [(self.__class__, self._meta.total_unique_constraints)]
            for parent_class in self._meta.all_parents:
                if parent_class._meta.unique_together:
                    unique_togethers.append(
                        (parent_class, parent_class._meta.unique_together)
                    )
                if include_meta_constraints and parent_class._meta.total_unique_constraints:
                    constraints.append(
                        (parent_class, parent_class._meta.total_unique_constraints)
                    )

            for model_class, unique_together in unique_togethers:
                for check in unique_together:
                    if not any(name in exclude for name in check):
                        # Add the check if the field isn't excluded.
                        unique_checks.append((model_class, tuple(check)))

            if include_meta_constraints:
                for model_class, model_constraints in constraints:
                    for constraint in model_constraints:
                        if not any(name in exclude for name in constraint.fields):
                            unique_checks.append((model_class, constraint.fields))

            # These are checks for the unique_for_<date/year/month>.
            date_checks = []

            # Gather a list of checks for fields declared as unique and add them to
            # the list of checks.

            fields_with_class = [(self.__class__, self._meta.local_fields)]
            for parent_class in self._meta.all_parents:
                fields_with_class.append((parent_class, parent_class._meta.local_fields))

            for model_class, fields in fields_with_class:
                for f in fields:
                    name = f.name
                    if name in exclude:
                        continue
                    if isinstance(f, CompositePrimaryKey):
                        names = tuple(field.name for field in f.fields)
                        if exclude.isdisjoint(names):
                            unique_checks.append((model_class, names))
                        continue
                    if f.unique:
                        unique_checks.append((model_class, (name,)))
                    if f.unique_for_date and f.unique_for_date not in exclude:
                        date_checks.append((model_class, "date", name, f.unique_for_date))
                    if f.unique_for_year and f.unique_for_year not in exclude:
                        date_checks.append((model_class, "year", name, f.unique_for_year))
                    if f.unique_for_month and f.unique_for_month not in exclude:
                        date_checks.append((model_class, "month", name, f.unique_for_month))
            return unique_checks, date_checks

        def _perform_unique_checks(self, unique_checks):
            errors = {}

            for model_class, unique_check in unique_checks:
                # Try to look up an existing object with the same values as this
                # object's values for all the unique field.

                lookup_kwargs = {}
                for field_name in unique_check:
                    f = self._meta.get_field(field_name)
                    lookup_value = getattr(self, f.attname)
                    # TODO: Handle multiple backends with different feature flags.
                    if lookup_value is None or (
                        lookup_value == ""
                        and connection.features.interprets_empty_strings_as_nulls
                    ):
                        # no value, skip the lookup
                        continue
                    if f in model_class._meta.pk_fields and not self._state.adding:
                        # no need to check for unique primary key when editing
                        continue
                    lookup_kwargs[str(field_name)] = lookup_value

                # some fields were skipped, no reason to do the check
                if len(unique_check) != len(lookup_kwargs):
                    continue

                qs = model_class._default_manager.filter(**lookup_kwargs)

                # Exclude the current object from the query if we are editing an
                # instance (as opposed to creating a new one)
                # Note that we need to use the pk as defined by model_class, not
                # self.pk. These can be different fields because model inheritance
                # allows single model to have effectively multiple primary keys.
                # Refs #17615.
                model_class_pk = self._get_pk_val(model_class._meta)
                if not self._state.adding and self._is_pk_set(model_class._meta):
                    qs = qs.exclude(pk=model_class_pk)
                if qs.exists():
                    if len(unique_check) == 1:
                        key = unique_check[0]
                    else:
                        key = NON_FIELD_ERRORS
                    errors.setdefault(key, []).append(
                        self.unique_error_message(model_class, unique_check)
                    )

            return errors

        def _perform_date_checks(self, date_checks):
            errors = {}
            for model_class, lookup_type, field, unique_for in date_checks:
                lookup_kwargs = {}
                # there's a ticket to add a date lookup, we can remove this special
                # case if that makes it's way in
                date = getattr(self, unique_for)
                if date is None:
                    continue
                if lookup_type == "date":
                    lookup_kwargs["%s__day" % unique_for] = date.day
                    lookup_kwargs["%s__month" % unique_for] = date.month
                    lookup_kwargs["%s__year" % unique_for] = date.year
                else:
                    lookup_kwargs["%s__%s" % (unique_for, lookup_type)] = getattr(
                        date, lookup_type
                    )
                lookup_kwargs[field] = getattr(self, field)

                qs = model_class._default_manager.filter(**lookup_kwargs)
                # Exclude the current object from the query if we are editing an
                # instance (as opposed to creating a new one)
                if not self._state.adding and self._is_pk_set():
                    qs = qs.exclude(pk=self.pk)

                if qs.exists():
                    errors.setdefault(field, []).append(
                        self.date_error_message(lookup_type, field, unique_for)
                    )
            return errors

        def date_error_message(self, lookup_type, field_name, unique_for):
            opts = self._meta
            field = opts.get_field(field_name)
            return ValidationError(
                message=field.error_messages["unique_for_date"],
                code="unique_for_date",
                params={
                    "model": self,
                    "model_name": capfirst(opts.verbose_name),
                    "lookup_type": lookup_type,
                    "field": field_name,
                    "field_label": capfirst(field.verbose_name),
                    "date_field": unique_for,
                    "date_field_label": capfirst(opts.get_field(unique_for).verbose_name),
                },
            )

        def unique_error_message(self, model_class, unique_check):
            opts = model_class._meta

            params = {
                "model": self,
                "model_class": model_class,
                "model_name": capfirst(opts.verbose_name),
                "unique_check": unique_check,
            }

            # A unique field
            if len(unique_check) == 1:
                field = opts.get_field(unique_check[0])
                params["field_label"] = capfirst(field.verbose_name)
                return ValidationError(
                    message=field.error_messages["unique"],
                    code="unique",
                    params=params,
                )

            # unique_together
            else:
                field_labels = [
                    capfirst(opts.get_field(f).verbose_name) for f in unique_check
                ]
                params["field_labels"] = get_text_list(field_labels, _("and"))
                return ValidationError(
                    message=_("%(model_name)s with this %(field_labels)s already exists."),
                    code="unique_together",
                    params=params,
                )

        def get_constraints(self):
            constraints = [(self.__class__, self._meta.constraints)]
            for parent_class in self._meta.all_parents:
                if parent_class._meta.constraints:
                    constraints.append((parent_class, parent_class._meta.constraints))
            return constraints

        def validate_constraints(self, exclude=None):
            constraints = self.get_constraints()
            using = router.db_for_write(self.__class__, instance=self)

            errors = {}
            for model_class, model_constraints in constraints:
                for constraint in model_constraints:
                    try:
                        constraint.validate(model_class, self, exclude=exclude, using=using)
                    except ValidationError as e:
                        if (
                            getattr(e, "code", None) == "unique"
                            and len(constraint.fields) == 1
                        ):
                            errors.setdefault(constraint.fields[0], []).append(e)
                        else:
                            errors = e.update_error_dict(errors)
            if errors:
                raise ValidationError(errors)

        def full_clean(self, exclude=None, validate_unique=True, validate_constraints=True):
            """
            Call clean_fields(), clean(), validate_unique(), and
            validate_constraints() on the model. Raise a ValidationError for any
            errors that occur.
            """
            errors = {}
            if exclude is None:
                exclude = set()
            else:
                exclude = set(exclude)

            try:
                self.clean_fields(exclude=exclude)
            except ValidationError as e:
                errors = e.update_error_dict(errors)

            # Form.clean() is run even if other validation fails, so do the
            # same with Model.clean() for consistency.
            try:
                self.clean()
            except ValidationError as e:
                errors = e.update_error_dict(errors)

            # Run unique checks, but only for fields that passed validation.
            if validate_unique:
                for name in errors:
                    if name != NON_FIELD_ERRORS and name not in exclude:
                        exclude.add(name)
                try:
                    self.validate_unique(exclude=exclude)
                except ValidationError as e:
                    errors = e.update_error_dict(errors)

            # Run constraints checks, but only for fields that passed validation.
            if validate_constraints:
                for name in errors:
                    if name != NON_FIELD_ERRORS and name not in exclude:
                        exclude.add(name)
                try:
                    self.validate_constraints(exclude=exclude)
                except ValidationError as e:
                    errors = e.update_error_dict(errors)

            if errors:
                raise ValidationError(errors)

        def clean_fields(self, exclude=None):
            """
            Clean all fields and raise a ValidationError containing a dict
            of all validation errors if any occur.
            """
            if exclude is None:
                exclude = set()

            errors = {}
            for f in self._meta.fields:
                if f.name in exclude or f.generated:
                    continue
                # Skip validation for empty fields with blank=True. The developer
                # is responsible for making sure they have a valid value.
                raw_value = getattr(self, f.attname)
                if f.blank and raw_value in f.empty_values:
                    continue
                # Skip validation for empty fields when db_default is used.
                if isinstance(raw_value, DatabaseDefault):
                    continue
                try:
                    setattr(self, f.attname, f.clean(raw_value, self))
                except ValidationError as e:
                    errors[f.name] = e.error_list

            if errors:
                raise ValidationError(errors)

        @classmethod
        def check(cls, **kwargs):
            errors = [
                *cls._check_swappable(),
                *cls._check_model(),
                *cls._check_managers(**kwargs),
            ]
            if not cls._meta.swapped:
                databases = kwargs.get("databases") or []
                errors += [
                    *cls._check_fields(**kwargs),
                    *cls._check_m2m_through_same_relationship(),
                    *cls._check_long_column_names(databases),
                ]
                clash_errors = (
                    *cls._check_id_field(),
                    *cls._check_field_name_clashes(),
                    *cls._check_model_name_db_lookup_clashes(),
                    *cls._check_property_name_related_field_accessor_clashes(),
                    *cls._check_single_primary_key(),
                )
                errors.extend(clash_errors)
                # If there are field name clashes, hide consequent column name
                # clashes.
                if not clash_errors:
                    errors.extend(cls._check_column_name_clashes())
                errors += [
                    *cls._check_unique_together(),
                    *cls._check_indexes(databases),
                    *cls._check_ordering(),
                    *cls._check_constraints(databases),
                    *cls._check_default_pk(),
                    *cls._check_db_table_comment(databases),
                    *cls._check_composite_pk(),
                ]

            return errors

        @classmethod
        def _check_default_pk(cls):
            if (
                not cls._meta.abstract
                and cls._meta.pk.auto_created
                and
                # Inherited PKs are checked in parents models.
                not (
                    isinstance(cls._meta.pk, OneToOneField)
                    and cls._meta.pk.remote_field.parent_link
                )
                and not settings.is_overridden("DEFAULT_AUTO_FIELD")
                and cls._meta.app_config
                and not cls._meta.app_config._is_default_auto_field_overridden
            ):
                return [
                    checks.Warning(
                        f"Auto-created primary key used when not defining a "
                        f"primary key type, by default "
                        f"'{settings.DEFAULT_AUTO_FIELD}'.",
                        hint=(
                            f"Configure the DEFAULT_AUTO_FIELD setting or the "
                            f"{cls._meta.app_config.__class__.__qualname__}."
                            f"default_auto_field attribute to point to a subclass "
                            f"of AutoField, e.g. 'django.db.models.BigAutoField'."
                        ),
                        obj=cls,
                        id="models.W042",
                    ),
                ]
            return []

        @classmethod
        def _check_composite_pk(cls):
            errors = []
            meta = cls._meta
            pk = meta.pk

            if not isinstance(pk, CompositePrimaryKey):
                return errors

            seen_columns = defaultdict(list)

            for field_name in pk.field_names:
                hint = None

                try:
                    field = meta.get_field(field_name)
                except FieldDoesNotExist:
                    field = None

                if not field:
                    hint = f"{field_name!r} is not a valid field."
                elif not field.column:
                    hint = f"{field_name!r} field has no column."
                elif field.null:
                    hint = f"{field_name!r} field may not set 'null=True'."
                elif field.generated:
                    hint = f"{field_name!r} field is a generated field."
                elif field not in meta.local_fields:
                    hint = f"{field_name!r} field is not a local field."
                else:
                    seen_columns[field.column].append(field_name)

                if hint:
                    errors.append(
                        checks.Error(
                            f"{field_name!r} cannot be included in the composite primary "
                            "key.",
                            hint=hint,
                            obj=cls,
                            id="models.E042",
                        )
                    )

            for column, field_names in seen_columns.items():
                if len(field_names) > 1:
                    field_name, *rest = field_names
                    duplicates = ", ".join(repr(field) for field in rest)
                    errors.append(
                        checks.Error(
                            f"{duplicates} cannot be included in the composite primary "
                            "key.",
                            hint=f"{duplicates} and {field_name!r} are the same fields.",
                            obj=cls,
                            id="models.E042",
                        )
                    )

            return errors

        @classmethod
        def _check_db_table_comment(cls, databases):
            if not cls._meta.db_table_comment:
                return []
            errors = []
            for db in databases:
                if not router.allow_migrate_model(db, cls):
                    continue
                connection = connections[db]
                if not (
                    connection.features.supports_comments
                    or "supports_comments" in cls._meta.required_db_features
                ):
                    errors.append(
                        checks.Warning(
                            f"{connection.display_name} does not support comments on "
                            f"tables (db_table_comment).",
                            obj=cls,
                            id="models.W046",
                        )
                    )
            return errors

        @classmethod
        def _check_swappable(cls):
            """Check if the swapped model exists."""
            errors = []
            if cls._meta.swapped:
                try:
                    apps.get_model(cls._meta.swapped)
                except ValueError:
                    errors.append(
                        checks.Error(
                            "'%s' is not of the form 'app_label.app_name'."
                            % cls._meta.swappable,
                            id="models.E001",
                        )
                    )
                except LookupError:
                    app_label, model_name = cls._meta.swapped.split(".")
                    errors.append(
                        checks.Error(
                            "'%s' references '%s.%s', which has not been "
                            "installed, or is abstract."
                            % (cls._meta.swappable, app_label, model_name),
                            id="models.E002",
                        )
                    )
            return errors

        @classmethod
        def _check_model(cls):
            errors = []
            if cls._meta.proxy:
                if cls._meta.local_fields or cls._meta.local_many_to_many:
                    errors.append(
                        checks.Error(
                            "Proxy model '%s' contains model fields." % cls.__name__,
                            id="models.E017",
                        )
                    )
            return errors

        @classmethod
        def _check_managers(cls, **kwargs):
            """Perform all manager checks."""
            errors = []
            for manager in cls._meta.managers:
                errors.extend(manager.check(**kwargs))
            return errors

        @classmethod
        def _check_fields(cls, **kwargs):
            """Perform all field checks."""
            errors = []
            for field in cls._meta.local_fields:
                errors.extend(field.check(**kwargs))
            for field in cls._meta.local_many_to_many:
                errors.extend(field.check(from_model=cls, **kwargs))
            return errors

        @classmethod
        def _check_m2m_through_same_relationship(cls):
            """Check if no relationship model is used by more than one m2m field."""

            errors = []
            seen_intermediary_signatures = []

            fields = cls._meta.local_many_to_many

            # Skip when the target model wasn't found.
            fields = (f for f in fields if isinstance(f.remote_field.model, ModelBase))

            # Skip when the relationship model wasn't found.
            fields = (f for f in fields if isinstance(f.remote_field.through, ModelBase))

            for f in fields:
                signature = (
                    f.remote_field.model,
                    cls,
                    f.remote_field.through,
                    f.remote_field.through_fields,
                )
                if signature in seen_intermediary_signatures:
                    errors.append(
                        checks.Error(
                            "The model has two identical many-to-many relations "
                            "through the intermediate model '%s'."
                            % f.remote_field.through._meta.label,
                            obj=cls,
                            id="models.E003",
                        )
                    )
                else:
                    seen_intermediary_signatures.append(signature)
            return errors

        @classmethod
        def _check_id_field(cls):
            """Check if `id` field is a primary key."""
            fields = [
                f for f in cls._meta.local_fields if f.name == "id" and f != cls._meta.pk
            ]
            # fields is empty or consists of the invalid "id" field
            if fields and not fields[0].primary_key and cls._meta.pk.name == "id":
                return [
                    checks.Error(
                        "'id' can only be used as a field name if the field also "
                        "sets 'primary_key=True'.",
                        obj=cls,
                        id="models.E004",
                    )
                ]
            else:
                return []

        @classmethod
        def _check_field_name_clashes(cls):
            """Forbid field shadowing in multi-table inheritance."""
            errors = []
            used_fields = {}  # name or attname -> field

            # Check that multi-inheritance doesn't cause field name shadowing.
            for parent in cls._meta.all_parents:
                for f in parent._meta.local_fields:
                    clash = used_fields.get(f.name) or used_fields.get(f.attname) or None
                    if clash:
                        errors.append(
                            checks.Error(
                                "The field '%s' from parent model "
                                "'%s' clashes with the field '%s' "
                                "from parent model '%s'."
                                % (clash.name, clash.model._meta, f.name, f.model._meta),
                                obj=cls,
                                id="models.E005",
                            )
                        )
                    used_fields[f.name] = f
                    used_fields[f.attname] = f

            # Check that fields defined in the model don't clash with fields from
            # parents, including auto-generated fields like multi-table inheritance
            # child accessors.
            for parent in cls._meta.all_parents:
                for f in parent._meta.get_fields():
                    if f not in used_fields:
                        used_fields[f.name] = f

            # Check that parent links in diamond-shaped MTI models don't clash.
            for parent_link in cls._meta.parents.values():
                if not parent_link:
                    continue
                clash = used_fields.get(parent_link.name) or None
                if clash:
                    errors.append(
                        checks.Error(
                            f"The field '{parent_link.name}' clashes with the field "
                            f"'{clash.name}' from model '{clash.model._meta}'.",
                            obj=cls,
                            id="models.E006",
                        )
                    )

            for f in cls._meta.local_fields:
                clash = used_fields.get(f.name) or used_fields.get(f.attname) or None
                # Note that we may detect clash between user-defined non-unique
                # field "id" and automatically added unique field "id", both
                # defined at the same model. This special case is considered in
                # _check_id_field and here we ignore it.
                id_conflict = (
                    f.name == "id" and clash and clash.name == "id" and clash.model == cls
                )
                if clash and not id_conflict:
                    errors.append(
                        checks.Error(
                            "The field '%s' clashes with the field '%s' "
                            "from model '%s'." % (f.name, clash.name, clash.model._meta),
                            obj=f,
                            id="models.E006",
                        )
                    )
                used_fields[f.name] = f
                used_fields[f.attname] = f

            return errors

        @classmethod
        def _check_column_name_clashes(cls):
            # Store a list of column names which have already been used by other fields.
            used_column_names = []
            errors = []

            for f in cls._meta.local_fields:
                column_name = f.column

                # Ensure the column name is not already in use.
                if column_name and column_name in used_column_names:
                    errors.append(
                        checks.Error(
                            "Field '%s' has column name '%s' that is used by "
                            "another field." % (f.name, column_name),
                            hint="Specify a 'db_column' for the field.",
                            obj=cls,
                            id="models.E007",
                        )
                    )
                else:
                    used_column_names.append(column_name)

            return errors

        @classmethod
        def _check_model_name_db_lookup_clashes(cls):
            errors = []
            model_name = cls.__name__
            if model_name.startswith("_") or model_name.endswith("_"):
                errors.append(
                    checks.Error(
                        "The model name '%s' cannot start or end with an underscore "
                        "as it collides with the query lookup syntax." % model_name,
                        obj=cls,
                        id="models.E023",
                    )
                )
            elif LOOKUP_SEP in model_name:
                errors.append(
                    checks.Error(
                        "The model name '%s' cannot contain double underscores as "
                        "it collides with the query lookup syntax." % model_name,
                        obj=cls,
                        id="models.E024",
                    )
                )
            return errors

        @classmethod
        def _check_property_name_related_field_accessor_clashes(cls):
            errors = []
            property_names = cls._meta._property_names
            related_field_accessors = (
                f.attname
                for f in cls._meta._get_fields(reverse=False)
                if f.is_relation and f.related_model is not None
            )
            for accessor in related_field_accessors:
                if accessor in property_names:
                    errors.append(
                        checks.Error(
                            "The property '%s' clashes with a related field "
                            "accessor." % accessor,
                            obj=cls,
                            id="models.E025",
                        )
                    )
            return errors

        @classmethod
        def _check_single_primary_key(cls):
            errors = []
            if sum(1 for f in cls._meta.local_fields if f.primary_key) > 1:
                errors.append(
                    checks.Error(
                        "The model cannot have more than one field with "
                        "'primary_key=True'.",
                        obj=cls,
                        id="models.E026",
                    )
                )
            return errors

        @classmethod
        def _check_unique_together(cls):
            """Check the value of "unique_together" option."""
            if not isinstance(cls._meta.unique_together, (tuple, list)):
                return [
                    checks.Error(
                        "'unique_together' must be a list or tuple.",
                        obj=cls,
                        id="models.E010",
                    )
                ]

            elif any(
                not isinstance(fields, (tuple, list))
                for fields in cls._meta.unique_together
            ):
                return [
                    checks.Error(
                        "All 'unique_together' elements must be lists or tuples.",
                        obj=cls,
                        id="models.E011",
                    )
                ]

            else:
                errors = []
                for fields in cls._meta.unique_together:
                    errors.extend(cls._check_local_fields(fields, "unique_together"))
                return errors

        @classmethod
        def _check_indexes(cls, databases):
            """Check fields, names, and conditions of indexes."""
            errors = []
            references = set()
            for index in cls._meta.indexes:
                # Index name can't start with an underscore or a number, restricted
                # for cross-database compatibility with Oracle.
                if index.name[0] == "_" or index.name[0].isdigit():
                    errors.append(
                        checks.Error(
                            "The index name '%s' cannot start with an underscore "
                            "or a number." % index.name,
                            obj=cls,
                            id="models.E033",
                        ),
                    )
                if len(index.name) > index.max_name_length:
                    errors.append(
                        checks.Error(
                            "The index name '%s' cannot be longer than %d "
                            "characters." % (index.name, index.max_name_length),
                            obj=cls,
                            id="models.E034",
                        ),
                    )
                if index.contains_expressions:
                    for expression in index.expressions:
                        references.update(
                            ref[0] for ref in cls._get_expr_references(expression)
                        )
            for db in databases:
                if not router.allow_migrate_model(db, cls):
                    continue
                connection = connections[db]
                if not (
                    connection.features.supports_partial_indexes
                    or "supports_partial_indexes" in cls._meta.required_db_features
                ) and any(index.condition is not None for index in cls._meta.indexes):
                    errors.append(
                        checks.Warning(
                            "%s does not support indexes with conditions."
                            % connection.display_name,
                            hint=(
                                "Conditions will be ignored. Silence this warning "
                                "if you don't care about it."
                            ),
                            obj=cls,
                            id="models.W037",
                        )
                    )
                if not (
                    connection.features.supports_covering_indexes
                    or "supports_covering_indexes" in cls._meta.required_db_features
                ) and any(index.include for index in cls._meta.indexes):
                    errors.append(
                        checks.Warning(
                            "%s does not support indexes with non-key columns."
                            % connection.display_name,
                            hint=(
                                "Non-key columns will be ignored. Silence this "
                                "warning if you don't care about it."
                            ),
                            obj=cls,
                            id="models.W040",
                        )
                    )
                if not (
                    connection.features.supports_expression_indexes
                    or "supports_expression_indexes" in cls._meta.required_db_features
                ) and any(index.contains_expressions for index in cls._meta.indexes):
                    errors.append(
                        checks.Warning(
                            "%s does not support indexes on expressions."
                            % connection.display_name,
                            hint=(
                                "An index won't be created. Silence this warning "
                                "if you don't care about it."
                            ),
                            obj=cls,
                            id="models.W043",
                        )
                    )
            fields = [
                field for index in cls._meta.indexes for field, _ in index.fields_orders
            ]
            fields += [include for index in cls._meta.indexes for include in index.include]
            fields += references
            errors.extend(cls._check_local_fields(fields, "indexes"))
            return errors

        @classmethod
        def _check_local_fields(cls, fields, option):
            from django.db import models

            # In order to avoid hitting the relation tree prematurely, we use our
            # own fields_map instead of using get_field()
            forward_fields_map = {}
            for field in cls._meta._get_fields(reverse=False):
                forward_fields_map[field.name] = field
                if hasattr(field, "attname"):
                    forward_fields_map[field.attname] = field

            errors = []
            for field_name in fields:
                try:
                    field = forward_fields_map[field_name]
                except KeyError:
                    errors.append(
                        checks.Error(
                            "'%s' refers to the nonexistent field '%s'."
                            % (
                                option,
                                field_name,
                            ),
                            obj=cls,
                            id="models.E012",
                        )
                    )
                else:
                    if isinstance(field.remote_field, models.ManyToManyRel):
                        errors.append(
                            checks.Error(
                                "'%s' refers to a ManyToManyField '%s', but "
                                "ManyToManyFields are not permitted in '%s'."
                                % (
                                    option,
                                    field_name,
                                    option,
                                ),
                                obj=cls,
                                id="models.E013",
                            )
                        )
                    elif isinstance(field, models.CompositePrimaryKey):
                        errors.append(
                            checks.Error(
                                f"{option!r} refers to a CompositePrimaryKey "
                                f"{field_name!r}, but CompositePrimaryKeys are not "
                                f"permitted in {option!r}.",
                                obj=cls,
                                id="models.E048",
                            )
                        )
                    elif field not in cls._meta.local_fields:
                        errors.append(
                            checks.Error(
                                "'%s' refers to field '%s' which is not local to model "
                                "'%s'." % (option, field_name, cls._meta.object_name),
                                hint="This issue may be caused by multi-table inheritance.",
                                obj=cls,
                                id="models.E016",
                            )
                        )
            return errors

        @classmethod
        def _check_ordering(cls):
            """
            Check "ordering" option -- is it a list of strings and do all fields
            exist?
            """
            if cls._meta._ordering_clash:
                return [
                    checks.Error(
                        "'ordering' and 'order_with_respect_to' cannot be used together.",
                        obj=cls,
                        id="models.E021",
                    ),
                ]

            if cls._meta.order_with_respect_to or not cls._meta.ordering:
                return []

            if not isinstance(cls._meta.ordering, (list, tuple)):
                return [
                    checks.Error(
                        "'ordering' must be a tuple or list (even if you want to order by "
                        "only one field).",
                        obj=cls,
                        id="models.E014",
                    )
                ]

            errors = []
            fields = cls._meta.ordering

            # Skip expressions and '?' fields.
            fields = (f for f in fields if isinstance(f, str) and f != "?")

            # Convert "-field" to "field".
            fields = (f.removeprefix("-") for f in fields)

            # Separate related fields and non-related fields.
            _fields = []
            related_fields = []
            for f in fields:
                if LOOKUP_SEP in f:
                    related_fields.append(f)
                else:
                    _fields.append(f)
            fields = _fields

            # Check related fields.
            for field in related_fields:
                _cls = cls
                fld = None
                for part in field.split(LOOKUP_SEP):
                    try:
                        # pk is an alias that won't be found by opts.get_field.
                        if part == "pk":
                            fld = _cls._meta.pk
                        else:
                            fld = _cls._meta.get_field(part)
                        if fld.is_relation:
                            _cls = fld.path_infos[-1].to_opts.model
                        else:
                            _cls = None
                    except (FieldDoesNotExist, AttributeError):
                        if fld is None or (
                            fld.get_transform(part) is None and fld.get_lookup(part) is None
                        ):
                            errors.append(
                                checks.Error(
                                    "'ordering' refers to the nonexistent field, "
                                    "related field, or lookup '%s'." % field,
                                    obj=cls,
                                    id="models.E015",
                                )
                            )

            # Skip ordering on pk. This is always a valid order_by field
            # but is an alias and therefore won't be found by opts.get_field.
            fields = {f for f in fields if f != "pk"}

            # Check for invalid or nonexistent fields in ordering.
            invalid_fields = []

            # Any field name that is not present in field_names does not exist.
            # Also, ordering by m2m fields is not allowed.
            opts = cls._meta
            valid_fields = set(
                chain.from_iterable(
                    (
                        (f.name, f.attname)
                        if not (f.auto_created and not f.concrete)
                        else (f.field.related_query_name(),)
                    )
                    for f in chain(opts.fields, opts.related_objects)
                )
            )

            invalid_fields.extend(fields - valid_fields)

            for invalid_field in invalid_fields:
                errors.append(
                    checks.Error(
                        "'ordering' refers to the nonexistent field, related "
                        "field, or lookup '%s'." % invalid_field,
                        obj=cls,
                        id="models.E015",
                    )
                )
            return errors

        @classmethod
        def _check_long_column_names(cls, databases):
            """
            Check that any auto-generated column names are shorter than the limits
            for each database in which the model will be created.
            """
            if not databases:
                return []
            errors = []
            allowed_len = None
            db_alias = None

            # Find the minimum max allowed length among all specified db_aliases.
            for db in databases:
                # skip databases where the model won't be created
                if not router.allow_migrate_model(db, cls):
                    continue
                connection = connections[db]
                max_name_length = connection.ops.max_name_length()
                if max_name_length is None or connection.features.truncates_names:
                    continue
                else:
                    if allowed_len is None:
                        allowed_len = max_name_length
                        db_alias = db
                    elif max_name_length < allowed_len:
                        allowed_len = max_name_length
                        db_alias = db

            if allowed_len is None:
                return errors

            for f in cls._meta.local_fields:
                # Check if auto-generated name for the field is too long
                # for the database.
                if (
                    f.db_column is None
                    and (column_name := f.column) is not None
                    and len(column_name) > allowed_len
                ):
                    errors.append(
                        checks.Error(
                            'Autogenerated column name too long for field "%s". '
                            'Maximum length is "%s" for database "%s".'
                            % (column_name, allowed_len, db_alias),
                            hint="Set the column name manually using 'db_column'.",
                            obj=cls,
                            id="models.E018",
                        )
                    )

            for f in cls._meta.local_many_to_many:
                # Skip nonexistent models.
                if isinstance(f.remote_field.through, str):
                    continue

                # Check if auto-generated name for the M2M field is too long
                # for the database.
                for m2m in f.remote_field.through._meta.local_fields:
                    if (
                        m2m.db_column is None
                        and (rel_name := m2m.column) is not None
                        and len(rel_name) > allowed_len
                    ):
                        errors.append(
                            checks.Error(
                                "Autogenerated column name too long for M2M field "
                                '"%s". Maximum length is "%s" for database "%s".'
                                % (rel_name, allowed_len, db_alias),
                                hint=(
                                    "Use 'through' to create a separate model for "
                                    "M2M and then set column_name using 'db_column'."
                                ),
                                obj=cls,
                                id="models.E019",
                            )
                        )

            return errors

        @classmethod
        def _get_expr_references(cls, expr):
            if isinstance(expr, Q):
                for child in expr.children:
                    if isinstance(child, tuple):
                        lookup, value = child
                        yield tuple(lookup.split(LOOKUP_SEP))
                        yield from cls._get_expr_references(value)
                    else:
                        yield from cls._get_expr_references(child)
            elif isinstance(expr, F):
                yield tuple(expr.name.split(LOOKUP_SEP))
            elif hasattr(expr, "get_source_expressions"):
                for src_expr in expr.get_source_expressions():
                    yield from cls._get_expr_references(src_expr)

        @classmethod
        def _check_constraints(cls, databases):
            errors = []
            for db in databases:
                if not router.allow_migrate_model(db, cls):
                    continue
                connection = connections[db]
                for constraint in cls._meta.constraints:
                    errors.extend(constraint._check(cls, connection))
            return errors

    ############################################
    # HELPER FUNCTIONS (CURRIED MODEL METHODS) #
    ############################################

    # ORDERING METHODS #########################

    def method_set_order(self, ordered_obj, id_list, using=None):
        order_wrt = ordered_obj._meta.order_with_respect_to
        filter_args = order_wrt.get_forward_related_filter(self)
        ordered_obj.objects.db_manager(using).filter(**filter_args).bulk_update(
            [ordered_obj(pk=pk, _order=order) for order, pk in enumerate(id_list)],
            ["_order"],
        )

    def method_get_order(self, ordered_obj):
        order_wrt = ordered_obj._meta.order_with_respect_to
        filter_args = order_wrt.get_forward_related_filter(self)
        pk_name = ordered_obj._meta.pk.name
        return ordered_obj.objects.filter(**filter_args).values_list(pk_name, flat=True)

    def make_foreign_order_accessors(model, related_model):
        setattr(
            related_model,
            "get_%s_order" % model.__name__.lower(),
            partialmethod(method_get_order, model),
        )
        setattr(
            related_model,
            "set_%s_order" % model.__name__.lower(),
            partialmethod(method_set_order, model),
        )

    ########
    # MISC #
    ########

    def model_unpickle(model_id):
        """Used to unpickle Model subclasses with deferred fields."""
        if isinstance(model_id, tuple):
            model = apps.get_model(*model_id)
        else:
            # Backwards compat - the model was cached directly in earlier versions.
            model = model_id
        return model.__new__(model)

    model_unpickle.__safe_for_unpickle__ = True